he Analects of Confucius (551-479 B.C.E) is an anthology of brief statements made by Confucius. His disciples are believed to have compiled these statements after 479 B.C.E. Attempting to address the chaos and disorder that plagued China during his time, Confucius advocated a revival of Zhou traditions as a means of restoring order to his world. Throughout the Analects, Confucius discusses Zhou court conduct and ritual forms as the foundation for this restoration. There is also an emphasis placed in the Analects on the human capacity for improvement through education. Consider the following questions as your read the
selection below:
- What do the Analects state about government and how it should function?
- What qualities should an effective ruler possess?
- What do the Analects state about the qualities of a higher man?
- What is the role of filiality and ren? Why is ritual (li) so important? Why are these qualities important to Confucius?
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Source: The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Sayings of Confucius, by Confucius
On Past Sages
The Master said, “How grand was the rule of the Emperor Yao! Towering is the grandeur ofHeaven; only Yao could emulate it. So grand that the people could find no words to describe it. Towering were his achievements! Glimmering, they formed a paradigm of pattern.” (8.19)
“Towering were Shun and Yu! They possessed all the empire and appropriated nothing to themselves.” (8.18)
“The Zhou looked upon the two dynasties preceding – how rich were its patterns! And we follow the Zhou.” (3.14
“King Wen is dead, but his patterns live on here in me, do they not? If Heaven wished these patterns to perish, I would not have been able to partake of them!” (9.5)
The Master said, “Arise with the Book of Poetry, take your stand by means of ritual li, and be fulfilled in music.” (8.8)
“If you do not study the Poetry, how will you have words to speak . . . If you do not study ritual, how will you be able to take your stand?” (16.13)
On Ren (humane and goodness)
The disciple Yen Yuan asked the Master about humane goodness (ren). The Master said, “Conquer yourself and return to li: that is goodness. If one could for a single day conquer oneself and return to li, the entire world would respond to him with goodness. . . . If it is not li, don’t look at it; if it is not li, don’t listen to it; if it is not li, don’t say it; if it is not li, don’t do it.” (12.1)
The disciple Zhonggong asked about ren. The Master said, “Whenever you go out your front gate continue to treat all you encounter as if they were great guests in your home. Whenever you direct the actions of others, do so as though you were officiating at a great sacrifice. And never act towards others in a way that you would not wish others to act towards you.” (12.2)
On Filiality
The patrician Meng Yizi asked about filiality. The Master said, “Never disobey!” Later, the disciple Fan Chi was driving the Master in his chariot and the Master said to him, “Meng Yizi asked me about filiality and I answered, ‘Never disobey!’” “What did you mean by that,” asked Fan Chi. The Master replied, “In life, serve parents according to li. In death, inter them according to li and sacrifice to them according to li.” (2.5)
The patrician Meng Wubo asked about filiality. The Master said, “One’s parents should need to
worry only about one’s health.” (2.6)
The disciple Ziyou asked about filiality. The Master said, “Those who speak of filiality nowadays mean by it merely supplying food and shelter to aged parents. Even dogs and horses receive as much. Without attentive respect, where is the difference?” (2.7)
The disciple Zixia asked about filiality. The Master said, “It is the outward demeanor that it difficult to maintain! That the youngest shall bear the burden at work or that the elders shall be served first of
food and drink, is this all that filiality means?” (2.8)
On Li (court poetry and music, refined martial arts training, and the ritual codes)
The disciple Master You said, “In the action of li harmony is the key. In the Dao of the former kings this was principle of greatest beauty. Affairs large and small all proceeded from this. Yet there was a limit. When one knew that a course of action would yield harmony but it was not according to li, one would not pursue it.” (1.12)
The Master heard the Shao Music while in the state of Qi and for three months the succulent taste of meat dishes meant nothing to him. “I never imagined that music could reach this!” he said. (7.14)
On the Junzi (internalized ritual behavior and ethical accomplishment)
The Master said, “A junzi does not aim at stuffing himself when he eats, or at luxury in his home. He is quick about his affairs and careful in choosing his words. He cleaves to those who possess the Dao and rectifies himself by means of their example. Such a man may be said to be learned.” (1.14)
“The junzi associates with others with broad impartiality and does not join cliques; a small man joins cliques and is not impartial.” (2.14)
“The junzi values virtue; a small man values land. The junzi values the example men set; a small man values the favors they grant.” (4.11)
“The junzi understands according to righteousness; a small man understands according to profit.” (4.16)
“When a person’s plain qualities exceed his patterned behavior he is rude. When pattern exceeds plainness he is clerkish. When pattern and plainness are in perfect balance, that is a junzi!” (6.18)
“The junzi seeks for it within himself; a small man seeks for it in others.” (15.21)
The disciple Master You said, “The man who is filial and obedient to his elders will rarely be insubordinate to his superiors, and never has a man who was not insubordinate brought chaos to his state. The junzi applies himself to the roots of things, for once the roots are firm, the Way can grow. Filiality and obedience to elders are the roots of ren, are they not?” (1.2)
On Self-Cultivation
The Master said, “Do not be anxious that others do not recognize your abilities, be anxious that you do not recognize others’.” (1.16)
“When I walk in a group of three, my teachers are always there. I select what is good in my companions and follow it; I select what is not good and change it within me.” (7.22)
“I have spent whole days without eating, whole nights without sleeping in order to ponder. It was useless – not like study!” (15.31)
The Master ruled out four things: Have no set ideas, no absolute demands, no stubbornness, no self. (9.4)
On Government
“When a ruler loves li, the people are easy to rule.” (14.41)
“Can ritual and deference be employed to rule a state? Why, there is nothing to it!” (4.13)
The Master said, “Governing by means of virtue one is like the North Star: it sits in its place and the other stars do reverence to it.” (2.1)
“‘He took no action and all was ruled’; would this not describe the Emperor Shun? What action did he take? He honored himself and sat facing south, that is all.” (15.5)
“Virtue is never lonely; it always attracts neighbors.” (4.25)
The patrician Ji Kangzi asked, “How would one use persuasion to make one’s people respectful and
loyal?”
The Master replied, “Approach them with seriousness and they will be respectful. Be filial towards your own parents and loving towards your children and the people will be loyal. Raise the good to positions of responsibility and instruct those who do not have abilities and they will be persuaded.” (2.20)
The Master said, “I am no better than another at passing judgment in disputes of law. What is needed is to end the need for lawsuits.” (12.13)
The patrician Ji Kangzi was troubled by banditry and asked Confucius about it. Confucius replied, “If you yourself were without desires others would not steal though you paid them to.” (12.18)
Ji Kangzi questioned Confucius about governing. “How would it be if I executed the immoral so as to push others towards the good? Confucius replied, “What need is there for executions in governance? If you yourself wish to be good, the people will be good. The virtue of the junzi is like wind and that of the people like grass. When the wind blows over the grass, it bends.” (12.19)